The Leave victory in the British referendum represents a
moment of political confusion — a hiatus in the opposition between social
classes. No class appears capable of directing events. The ruling class
has no clear plans for the future, and seems temporarily stunned.
The working class and the poor have expressed great anger at
the state of affairs of both society and nation, but are also deeply divided,
with contradictory ideas prevailing in their midst. The formless middle class
is deeply frustrated at the turn of events and would like a firm hand at the
tiller, but has no idea how to achieve this outcome.
Such moments call for a decisive political force to alter
the social balance. Historically, moments like these have been captured by
powerful personalities, who placed their stamp on social development, but
there is no Churchill, not even a Pitt or a Wellington, in Britain at present.
Instead, the responsibility for taking the country out of
the impasse lies with the personnel of the established political parties. Nor
will the sense of confusion last long. Already the Tory Party, ruthless
electoral machine that it is, has begun to adapt itself to the new conditions.
If it succeeds, the outcome for working people will be thoroughly negative.
This is the peril of the referendum.
The onus for averting such an outcome and taking the
country forward lies with the Labour Party, which also faces profound turmoil.
The Labour Party could give shape to the yearnings of the working class and
the poor, whether they voted for Leave or Remain.
It is incumbent upon it to present a fresh vision of society
and nation, taking Britain down a path that favors the interests of the great
majority. This is the promise of the referendum, but for that the Labour Party
must put its own house in order.
The referendum has created this sharp choice for Britain
because it represents a shift of the tectonic plates in British society. A
careful look at the results together with an extensive exit poll of more than
twelve thousand people conducted by Lord Ashcroft polls — considered in the
context of preceding political events — reveal two rifts, one far more
profound than the other.
The Minor Rift
The minor rift is present within the British ruling
class: the majority of financiers, industrialists, merchants, real estate
speculators, and others favor staying in the European Union, while a
much smaller minority have opted for Brexit. The evidence of the relative
size of the two sides is undeniable.
More than 80 percent of Confederation of British Industry
(CBI) members have come out in favor of Remain,
while a mere 5 percent have declared for Leave. While a
veritable roll call of British business leaders signed letters to the press
advocating Remain, a vocal and well-connected minority has come out in favor
of Leave.
This state of affairs is not surprising. The
economic interests of the bulk of the British ruling class lie in close
connections with the European Union, particularly in the freedom to trade
without barriers within the Common Market.
In 2015 44.4 percent of British exports went to the
European Union, while 53.6 percent of imports came from the same; there is
no doubt that any significant disruption of these flows through tariffs or
other barriers would have a negative effect on British big business.
Furthermore, the financial operations of the City also
dictate remaining in the European Union; the City operates as a huge
offshore center for the European Union, and despite the fact that the
putative integration of European banking would probably have a negative impact
on its activities. The Single Supervisory Mechanism and the rest of the
regulatory institutions created by the European Union to oversee its Banking
Union are likely to affect the freedom of the City to engage in speculative and
other business.
Despite this interdependence, Britain is far less integrated
into the EU networks than the core countries of the union. Trade links between
Britain and the European Union are actually among the weakest within the
twenty-eight-member union, similar by order of magnitude to trade flows between
Greece and the European Union as well as Italy and the European Union. In
contrast, for both France and Germany trade with the EU accounts for nearly 60
percent of exports and 70 percent of imports.
By contrast, the Leave side of the ruling class is a
motley group without a strong sectoral character, who partly hope to trade
more intensely outside the European Union. More than that, however, Leave
supporters hope to advance a more thorough neoliberal agenda by ridding Britain
of EU regulations and further reducing labor rights and social protection.
These noble aspirations certainly do not leave the rest of
the British ruling class unmoved, and the relatively modest size of the Leave
group should not obscure its considerable social weight and significance.
Above all, the Leave side reflects the long-standing
suspicion of the entire British ruling class toward the economic and political
ambitions of the EU project. Leave supporters have acted as the inner
voice of the British establishment, reminding even Remain supporters that
something is not quite right with the European Union, even if no-one is
entirely clear what that is.
It is not hard to find evidence of the skeptical attitude
toward the European Union that extends across the British ruling class but
takes a sharp form only with the Leave side. Britain refused to join the
European Monetary Union (EMU) and the chances that it would eventually adopt
the euro were almost nil.
Avoiding the EMU turned out to be a wise decision in the
wake of the 2008–9 financial crisis, but it also gave rise to a long-term
problem for Britain, given that the European Union as a whole has come
increasingly to rely on the institutions of the common currency. The European
Central Bank, the Eurosystem, the European Stability Mechanism, and a host of
other institutions that are vital to the monetary union have become the locus
of policy-making within the EU.
Indeed, the European Union has effectively reshaped
itself since 2010 to ensure the survival of the euro. It is far from clear how
Britain would have continued to function within the EU while refusing to
participate in the EMU.
Trade relations between the two are certainly important, but
trade alone would never have been enough to ensure the integration of Britain
into a changing European Union. The Leave side, in its own inarticulate
manner, has reflected this core difficulty faced by the entire British ruling
class.
The Major Rift
The true significance of the referendum, however, is that
the rift within the British ruling class has acted as catalyst for the
emergence of a far deeper rift within British society. This is a common
occurrence when great historic events take place.
If the ruling is class is uniform in its outlook, it is much
harder for deeper rifts in society to come to the surface; the dominated
classes have few opportunities to voice their desires and demands. But if
the ruling class itself is split, deep social rifts have the potential to
become yawning chasms. This is precisely the state that Britain finds itself in.
Income and Employment
It is undeniable that the majority of the poor and the
working class in Britain have voted in favor of Leave. According to the
Ashcroft poll, 64 percent of the C2, D, and E categories voted for Brexit; these
are basically skilled and unskilled manual workers, casual workers, those who
depend on the welfare state for their income, and so on.
In contrast, groups A and B — higher and intermediate
managerial, or administrative layers — voted to stay. Group C1 — junior
managerial, or administrative layers — were split roughly down the middle.
These sociological descriptions correspond poorly with the
traditional class categories in Marxist analysis. For one thing, they don’t
include a ruling class, or even a well-defined capitalist class. Yet they still
highlight the social composition of the voting camps. The poor and the
working class have voted, by and large, for Leave.
The middle class, on the other hand, especially the
higher professional and managerial groups have opted for
Remain. This seismic shift reflecting a profound
divide in British society, lies beneath the class hiatus in the
country at present.
Geography
The significance of this rift is made visible by the
geographical distribution of the referendum results (which have been provided
by the BBC). The social balance always has a geographical dimension reflecting
the distribution of skill, the local accumulation of wealth and poverty, and
the historical accretion of class struggles.
Britain as a whole voted 51.9 percent for Leave and 48.1
percent for Remain. Within these percentages, England voted 53.4 percent
for Leave and 46.6 percent for Remain — very similar to Wales’s 52.5 percent
and 47.5 percent, respectively.
In contrast, Scotland voted 38 percent for Leave and 62
percent for Remain, while Northern Ireland voted 44.2 percent and 55.8 percent,
respectively. Thus, there is no doubt that the overall result for
Britain was driven by England, which calls for closer examination.
A simple way of capturing the geographical rift in England
is to consider the “stronger” results, that is, the local percentages exceeding
60 percent in favor of either Leave, or Remain. This would provide an
indication of the geographical concentration of “stronger” views, thus
affording sharper insight into the class composition of the vote.
The list below includes the majority of referendum areas
that voted at or above 60 percent in favor of Leave, as well as the majority of
the referendum areas that voted at or above 60 percent in favor of Remain
(hence 40 percent or less for Leave).
More than 60 percent for Leave: Barnsley 68.3%, Basildon
68.6%, Barking & Dagenham 62.4%, Dartford 64.2%, Doncaster 69%, East Riding
of Yorkshire 60.4%, Epping Forest 62.7%, Fenland 71.4%, Havering 69.7%,
Hartlepool 69.6%, King’s Lynn & West Norfolk 66.4%, Kingston upon Hull
67.4%, Mansfield 70.9%, Medway 64.1%, Newcastle under Lyme 63%, North East
Lincolnshire 69.6%, North West Leicestershire 60.7%, Oldham 60.9%, Peterborough
60.9%, Redcar & Cleveland 66.2%, Rochdale 60.1%, Sandwell 66.7%,
Scarborough 62%, Shepway 62.2%, South Staffordshire 64.8%, Stoke on Trend
69.4%, Sunderland 61.3%, Tameside 61.1%, Telford and Wrekin 63.2%, Tendring
69.5%, Thanet 63.8%, Thurrock 72.3%, Torbay 63.2%, Wakefield 66.4%, Walsall
67.9%, Wigan 63.9%, Wolverhampton 62.6%.
Less than 40 percent for Leave: Barnet 37.8%, Cambridge
26.2%, Camden 25.1%, Hackney 21.5%, Hammersmith and Fulham 30%, Hackney 24.4%,
Islington 24.8%, Kensington and Chelsea 31.3%, Kingston upon Thames 38.4%,
Lambeth 21.4%, Lewisham 30.1%, Oxford 29.7%, Southwark 27.2%, St Albans 37.3%,
Tower Hamlets 32.5%, Waltham Forest 40.9%, Wandsworth 25%, Westminster 31%.
Several conclusions are immediately apparent:
The “strong” Leave vote was widely and evenly spread
across England.
Large groups of the working class in the North voted
strongly for Leave.
Areas of pronounced poverty across England voted strongly
for Leave.
There were “strong” Leave votes in working-class areas in
the South, particularly around London; these are sometimes called
“white-flight areas”.
The “strong” Remain vote was extremely concentrated in
London, particularly in the working-class areas that contain large
concentrations of second- and third-generation immigrants. Note, though,
that several of these areas have also been undergoing a process of
gentrification and have substantial concentrations of the middle class.
The better-off areas of London voted strongly in favor of
Remain. Very few other areas of the country voted similarly, including
Cambridge, St. Albans, and Oxford.
There is no evidence at all that the Leave vote was heavily
concentrated in parts of the country that have presumably suffered disproportionately
from the form of capitalist development of Britain during the last several
decades.
On the contrary, the Leave vote was spread fairly evenly
across the country, even at its “strongest”. In contrast, the Remain vote
was far more heavily concentrated, indeed its “strongest” instances were
extremely concentrated in London.
London has always been different from the rest of the
country, as all those with even a passing awareness of English history know. At
present its concerns and aspirations reflect the large resident middle class
whose cosmopolitan outlook typically favors Remain. This class has exceptional
access to the media, and its views are transparently out of kilter with the
rest of the country.
The concerns and aspirations of London also reflect the
large concentration of second- and third-generation working-class and poor
immigrants, evident in the strong Remain vote in areas such as Hackney,
Lambeth, and Lewisham.
It should be stressed, however, that the cosmopolitan middle
class of London enjoys a strong ideological and cultural preeminence in many of
these areas as a result of advancing gentrification. This is strengthened by
the relatively peaceful coexistence of communities within the areas undergoing
gentrification.
The outer periphery of London, in contrast, particularly
the so-called areas of “white flight,” exhibits a very different behavior,
often strongly in favor of Leave.
In sum, it is apparent that the working class and the poor
across England have voted for Leave. This conclusion is
further backed by some of the qualitative findings of the
Ashcroft poll. While a majority of those who are working full- or part-time
voted to remain, most of those who are not working voted to leave, as did
two-thirds of those on a state pension. A similar proportion (two-thirds) of
tenants of council and housing association tenants also voted to leave.
The poorest had few doubts, it seems. They wanted out.
This also consistent with another finding of which no
little fuss has been made in the international media: those with university
degrees, especially higher ones, voted to remain, while a large majority of
those with only secondary education voted to leave. The international
chatterers discovered to their horror that the working class and the poor, by
and large, do not go to university.
Quite obviously then, the strong majority in favor of Leave
must have been the result of ignorance, and possibly obtuseness . . . in days
of yore the habits of personal cleanliness and the dress codes of Leave voters
would also have come in for mockery. Class prejudice against the poor,
especially when they dare to express strong views, has never been subtle.
Why Vote Leave?
A referendum is by its nature a binary choice: yes or no. It
is undoubtedly an exercise in democracy but of a very special nature conducive
to expressing frustration and rejection. In the case of EU-related referenda
there is a long history of rejection votes in several countries, most
prominently in the Greek referendum of July 2015.
It appears that the people of Europe, when asked about
the European Union, express alienation and distaste; united Europe appears not
to be a grassroots project.
No wonder that the established powers within the European
Union avoid referenda like the plague and take extraordinary action to repeat
votes until the “right” result is produced, or even altogether ignore a “wrong”
result, as happened most egregiously with the Greek referendum.
The British referendum is indisputably an instance of
accumulated frustration among the working class and the poor in England
resulting in a protest vote in favor of Leave. The question is, what were
they frustrated and angry about, and why was their frustration channeled toward
the European Union?
Pressure on Wages, Disposable Income, and Welfare
Provision
One key underlying cause is not hard to find: British
workers and British households have faced stagnating and even falling wages and
disposable incomes since 2000, as Figures 1 and 2 show. The bulk of the
British population has faced ever-tighter living conditions for a decade and a
half.
The problem of wages and disposable income became
especially severe after the major crisis of 2008–9, although there has been
some improvement after 2014. That gigantic shock came after three decades of
exceptional expansion of finance that has resulted in pronounced
financialization of the British economy.
Financialization has produced tremendous profits and
benefits for a narrow elite that is often associated with the City of London,
while piling up insecurity and economic pressures for working people.